However, the centrifugal force exerted to spin-stabilize a projectile, also has a negative effect on jet formation. An example of a fluted cone is provided in Figure 3. Angle: An important geometrical consideration is the angle of the cone apex.
Since different angles produce different effects, target specific configuration are required. For example, shallow angled cones provide less penetration over larger surface areas given that they move more slowly and pull more material from the liner. The trade-off for these conditions is the production of a large entry hole. Steeper angled cones move faster, focus on a smaller surface area, use less material from the liner, but produce much deeper penetration.
The effects produced when explosive focus is applied to a slightly concaved surface, initiated on the center axis of the base over the concaved plate are extreme Figure 1. The resulting EFP combines extremely high velocity with the mass of a heavy copper liner capable of penetrating armor and other hardened targets.
As with shaped-charges, the effects of an EFP are greatly enhanced when brisant explosives are used. After penetrating or missing a target an EFP can travel for many kilometers. Other than landmines, EFPs have limited use in military ordnance. The extended standoff requirements for an EFP to function correctly, ultimately limit delivery options.
Craters and Camouflets: When an explosion takes place on the surface, a shallow open crater is formed. Munitions designed to produce a camouflet are target specific and complex, resulting in additional hazards when they fail to function.
Spalling: When armor is impacted by a fast moving, dense object, or when an explosive is placed in contact with armor and initiated, the metal is impacted, compressed, and pushed away from the point of impact or detonation, causing an intense shock wave to move through the armor.
If strong enough, when the shock wave abruptly stops on the opposite side, interior metal flakes off and continues traveling away from the energy source.
When unconfined, low explosives may burn, deflagrate, or explode; but are more likely to explode when confined. LE are utilized extensively in ordnance to fire projectiles, launch rockets, missiles, torpedoes, as well as other applications. Black Powder: The history of black powder is the history of military conquest.
The original date of discovery is unknown and may have been a tightly held military secret for decades before first being mentioned in Chinese literature in By , the Chinese government had placed key ingredients under military control, banned export sales, and made the recipe a state secret. Still used today, black powder is the longest continuously used military explosive.
The burn-rate of black powder is subject to many variables, but can exceed 1, fps mps. Today, the exact mixture used by the Chinese over 1, years ago is not known. Until the early s, black powder was used for almost all explosive main charges, fuzing systems, bursting charges, propellants to fire projectiles, as well as rockets.
Today, black powder is used in pyrotechnic delay fuzes, self-destruct delay elements, expelling charges, bursting charges, and other ordnance components. Though very hygroscopic, black powder is extremely sensitive to sparks and static electricity. When stored in a sealed container, black powder will remain stable for extremely long periods of time.
In most cases, these people were killed while working on projectiles recovered from battlefields. Propellants: React to the same types of stimuli as high explosives. Many propellants contain high explosives with stabilizers and other materials to produce specific burn rates and required thrust. As such, there are many chemical compounds used to propel munitions, dispense ordnance payloads, or move internal components.
Propellants may be composed in either solid or liquid form. Solid propellants are used to fire or propel projectiles.
Liquid propellants are more commonly used in large rocket motors and underwater ordnance. Many performance characteristics of a propellant are determined by the burn rate, which is the rate at which gases are generated by a burning propellant.
The performance characteristics, specific formulations, and configuration of a propellant are then used to complete the design factors that maximize munition efficiency. A few definitions relevant to propellants are provided below. Class: The chemical composition of a propellant.
Form: The shape of a propellant Figure 1. Burn Rate: The speed at which the reaction zone progresses through or consumes a propellant. Force Constant f v of a Propellant: Is a means of expressing the quantity of gas produced when propellant burns. Also known as propellant force or propellant impetus. Burn Types: Various forms are used to control how propellants burn. While burning, the surface area can increase, decrease, or remain constant. Degressive Burn: A form with decreasing surface area, and thus decreasing force as it burns.
Neutral Burn: A form maintaining a constant surface area, and thus consistent force as it burns. Progressive Burn: A form with increasing surface area, and thus increasing force as it burns. Most explosives used by the military decompose slowly, even under extreme conditions. However, propellants containing nitrocellulose and other unstable materials tend to decompose quickly.
Damaged and deteriorated propellants are capable of inadvertent initiation and other malfunctions. Details on the chemical safety precaution are provided in Chapter 2. Low Explosives and Propellants—Groups In order for a propellant to function as designed, components are aligned from the most to least sensitive.
In a low-explosive train, this is the means by which a flame is amplified to ignite larger quantities of propellant. Components of a propellant firing training include Figure 1. Primer or Squib: The smallest, most sensitive component in the train. Non-electric primers function upon impact, while electric primers or squibs are initiated by electric current. When a primer or squib functions, a small flame is produced and passed on to the igniter.
Igniter: Amplifies the flame from the primer or squib to ignite the main propellant charge. Propellant: Receives the flame from the igniter or squib and functions as designed. Low Explosives and Propellants—Effects and Configurations Due to the complex chemistry and classified nature of many liquid and some solid propellants, detailed constituent lists are seldom available.
Additionally, some of the materials found may require explanation. The purpose of adding lead is to reduce muzzle flash, while also providing lubrication to reduce wear on the barrel. Four propellant classes are discussed in this text: single base, double base, triple base, and composites: Single-Base Powder SBP : Composed of nitrocellulose; which is a high explosive with a VOD of 24, fps.
SBP is very sensitive to heat, shock, and friction. While this mixture increases the energy potential and burning temperature, the increased temperatures will rapidly deteriorate barrels. Nitroguanidine burns much cooler than nitroglycerin without sacrificing energy output.
Composite: There are many different formulations qualifying as a composite propellant. Most are composed of a fuel such as aluminum, binders such as synthetic polymers that can also contribute as a fuel, and oxidizers such as ammonium or potassium perchlorate. Forms of Propellants Forms are used to manipulate the energy output of a propellant to ensure it meets the performance requirements of the munition. The definitions below correspond with forms in Figure 1. Cord: Produces rapidly increasing pressure that quickly peaks, then gradually tapers off as the surface area of burning propellant decreases.
Classified as a degressive form, cord is common in small arms, small rocket motors, and small-caliber artillery. Single-Perforation: Provides a constant surface area while being consumed. As the outer surface area decreases, the inner surface area increases, allowing pressure production to remain constant.
Classified as a neutral form, single-perforation is used in rifle ammunition and larger rocket motors. Multiple-Perforation and Rosette: Increases the overall surface area as the propellant burns. Resulting in initially low pressures that gradually increase as the propellant is consumed. Classified as a progressive form, multi-perforation is used in large-caliber artillery or where extremely high velocities are required.
Pyrotechnics, Incendiaries, Pyrophorics, and Smoke Producing Compounds Materials capable of burning are used extensively in ordnance to illuminate the night, function fuzing, produce colored smoke, or to enhance explosive effects. Commonly recognized examples are projectile tracer elements and signal flares. For flare compositions, fuels, oxidizers, binding agents, retardants, waterproofing materials, and intensifiers are used.
All of these materials are manipulated to control burn times, colors, and the intensity of the light and smoke produced. One of the older, yet lesser known pyrotechnic compounds used in ordnance is photoflash powder. When ignited, this mixture of oxidizers and metallic fuels technically burns, but produces sounds similar to an explosion with a significant blinding-white flash.
For example, the U. Details on the fire safety precaution associated with these compounds are provided in Chapter 2. Incendiary Materials Are typically used to mark or destroy targets with intense heat and fire. Early in military history, burning an enemy in battle was a common tactic utilizing oil, pitch, sulfur, and other volatile materials.
As with black powder, the exact mixture of the original Greek fire is unknown as death was the punishment for sharing the secret mix. Today, napalm and white phosphorus are examples of Greek-fire-like, liquid incendiary materials. There are different napalm mixtures, with most containing a hydrocarbon fuel mixed with thickeners, or a mixture of magnesium powder, gasoline, and polyisobutadiene; all of which need to be ignited while or after being deployed. One of the most common incendiary materials used in ordnance is white phosphorus WP , which immediately ignites upon contact with oxygen.
The smoke produced by WP is bright white and filled with particulates. The smoke can be easily spotted in almost any environment, and the high particulate count effectively blocks laser designators used to guide ordnance. In addition to napalm, WP and other similar compounds, solid materials may also be utilized for incendiary effects.
Pyrophoric Materials Thermobaric and incendiary munitions offer examples of pyrophoric materials used in ordnance. An example of a multi-use liquid is TriEthylAluminum TEA , which is hypergolic upon contact with air or water; however, the energetic diversity of TEA allows it to be used as a thermobaric-explosive warhead with incendiary effects, as well as fuel in large rocket motors.
Other Smoke Producing Compounds Many pyrotechnic, incendiary, and pyrophoric materials produce smoke. The compounds covered in this section are specifically used for their smoke producing qualities. However, from a safety perspective, all smokes are not alike. Colored Smoke: Compounds used in ordnance to produce colored smoke for signaling and screening. Sublimed organic dyes and inorganic salts are used to produce various smoke colors. The most common colors used are red, green, violet, and yellow.
White Smoke: There are a few compounds used to produce white smoke, all of which are significantly different from colored smokes. Three examples of materials used to produce white smoke are provided below. The reaction forms zinc chloride and hydrochloric acid. Commonly deployed in similar configurations as colored smokes, HC smoke is toxic in field concentrations requiring adherence to the chemical safety precaution. The reaction forms hydrochloric acid. Commonly deployed as a spotting charge, FM smoke is toxic in field concentrations requiring adherence to the chemical safety precaution.
The reaction forms hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. Commonly deployed as a spotting charge, FS smoke is toxic in field concentrations requiring adherence to the chemical safety precaution. Closing The list of explosives, pyrotechnics, pyrophorics, and other reactive materials and compounds used in ordnance is extensive. However, a comprehensive understanding of these materials and how they interact and work is required to appreciate the threats they pose, and to understand how to apply the safety precautions covered in Chapter 2.
Additionally, this understanding will greatly increase the level of safety required when working with military ordnance. The Fundamentals of a Practical Process 2 Scientific method refers to the body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It is based on gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning. Sir Isaac Newton, Introduction The application of the scientific method in the form of a practical deductive process is required to interrogate, assess, and correctly identify unknown ordnance.
The processes outlined in this chapter are the core methodology used by the military Explosive Ordnance Disposal EOD field, which also harmonize well with those applied by battlefield archaeologists. An archaeological approach to the recovery of an artifact is a scientifically systematic process that starts with an open mind, followed by the development of working hypotheses based on what can be observed and all available information. Subsequent to these principles are methodical excavation, careful examination, and research of appropriate literature.
Throughout these processes, deductions based on the facts and experience of the examiner result in constantly evolving, multiple working hypotheses. Consistent execution of this methodology will eliminate as many possible hypotheses as feasible, allowing more specific hypotheses to develop for further examination and research. Ultimately, the application of this process will result in accurate identification, a safer work environment, professional credibility, additional technical information on the item, and a more complete understanding of the past as well as the present.
For centuries, nations have employed the brightest chemists, physicists, tacticians, and engineers to gain and maintain technical and tactical advantages. Historically, advantage equaled survival, and the result was a vast number of ordnance designs, many of which were never properly documented, making positive identification of unknown ordnance extremely important but also challenging.
Throughout this text, practices that allow safe inspection of unknown ordnance to continue are explained. The process begins with the assumption that an unknown munition contains all possible threats, and constantly evolves until the Seven-Step process is completed Figure 2. The evidence used to make many of these decisions is imprecise, variations in manufacturing techniques and materials used to construct ordnance further ensure nothing is absolute.
To address these variables, the Seven-Step process focuses on construction features that help determine the Category, Group, and Type to which a munition belongs. Category, Group, Type, and Size Definitions Over the last 1, years, millions of different ordnance designs, types, and models have been created. Many were manufactured by nations that do not exist today.
Thus, a classification system, based on how ordnance is designed for deployment and purpose is used to organize this information. In addition to the research-related benefits, this system is also directly linked to field processing and safety. For example, many safety precautions are associated with specific designs, and documentation for many specific munitions does not exist. By accurately categorizing and grouping an unknown munition, unrelated precautions are dropped, leaving only those associated with that specific design.
In these situations, while a munition may not be positively identified, its associated threats can be established and considered before further actions are taken. The overall design, materials, and methods of construction used for all ordnance is limited by the rules of physics, chemistry, and engineering, as well as the manufacturing capabilities of the country, or person making the munition.
The results are unique characteristics that can be used to classify the category or group to which a munition belongs. Using this classification system as a guide, subsequent chapters will cover the shapes, designs, construction features, materials, and associated safety precautions.
All of this evaluation process begins with a few important definitions: Perspective: When interrogating unknown ordnance, regardless of location, a munition is always assessed from a down-range perspective. Whether a munition is on a shelf, set in the trunk of a car, or inside a foot locker, a munition is always assessed as if it was correctly deployed and currently resting on a battlefield.
When universally applied, communications, research, and accurate identification are enhanced and align with military classification systems. Category: Defines the means of deployment or intended application of a munition. It is the fundamental class a munition falls under.
Color Codes and Marking Schemes Ordnance is painted or anodized to prevent corrosion and offer a means of identification. Additionally, most countries apply slightly or completely different color code schemes. For example, the United States currently applies its third generation of color schemes developed over the last years. The current marking scheme for projectiles manufactured in the U. The Russian projectile marking scheme is displayed in Figure 2. Additional information on U.
It is important to note that the color codes and markings being discussed do not apply to small arms, blanks, cartridge cases, fuzes, demolition charges, and many pyrotechnic devices. Stamped Markings In addition to paint, many ordnance items have important information stamped into the metal as a dependable means of identification. Used by most countries, these markings may include the munitions nomenclature, model number, serial number, and other referenceable information.
Stamped markings are difficult to deface, more apt to survive impact and exposure to the elements Figure 2. Base stamped markings are common on Russian projectiles, but the U. In contrast, submunitions, small landmines, and many external and internal components of larger ordnance items may not have stamped, stenciled, or painted markings of any kind.
Figure 2. Projectile marking scheme. When properly applied, this process greatly increases the probability of an accurate identification.
Which starts with the realization that ordnance is inherently dangerous. As such, approach constitutes a decision point. For safety, the overall mindset is that the unknown munition may contain the most hazardous features possible and is in a hazardous condition.
Although situations vary and the sequence of the seven-steps may change Figure 2. Depending on the munition and environment, some characteristics may be more easily recognized, allowing some steps to be answered quickly. Those steps remaining unanswered warrant additional consideration during step 7. Step 1: Approach and Initial Inspection: Figure 2. The flexible measuring tapes are for round or awkwardly shaped items.
The cord is handy for long or large diameter items. In addition to the tools photographed, consider adding small binoculars, a small mirror, a pen, paper, and a compact digital camera. If a portable x-ray is available, it is a valuable tool for inspecting internal components. Start by attempting to identify the munition from a safe distance with binoculars.
If this is not possible and a closer look is required, attempt to determine the front and rear of the munition. Approach the unknown item until it is in view, stop, and begin to address steps 2 through 5, while adhering to the relevant safety precautions outlined in step 6. Until a munition has been conclusively identified and deemed safe to move, do not manually move or touch it. Under no circumstances are plungers depressed, vanes rotated, pins removed or replaced, levers or any other external features moved, as these actions may arm or function a munition.
Safety Concern: Many tools used to assemble ordnance are not commonly available. If a wrench and other inappropriate tool-marks are noted during inspection, STOP! Includes inner and outer calipers, magnifying or fingerprint inspection glass, small light, compass, flexible and rigid measuring scales in metric and standard for documentation and photography. With no legitimate reason for the presence of these unusual toolmarks, or means of immediately determining what was modified, it must be assumed the munition will not function as designed.
Begin the inspection at one end of the munition and work to the other end, taking note of all identifying construction features. Make a rough sketch of the area, photograph the item, and document measurements and identifiable features. At a minimum, ensure the width and length of the fuze, individual sections, and the overall munition are documented.
Then document other identifying features including fins, rotating bands, venturis, leaking material, color codes, stamped markings, distinct construction features, damage, signs of tampering or modification. Upon completing an inspection, exit the area via the route taken on approach and return to the safe area. If maximum consideration is given to ensuring the fuze does not function, the threat of the munition causing harm is greatly reduced. A clearly visible, undamaged fuze is easy to identify.
If the munition has been deployed, the fuze is considered armed step 5. If a fuze is damaged, or components such as pins or clips have been removed, the fuze is considered armed. If the munition shows signs of alteration or modification, consider the munition armed as the internal configuration is now unknown and may include an alternate fuzing system. Measurements of the fuze are taken separately from the munition. In many cases, category can be determined by the presence or absence of specific external features.
In many cases, group can be determined by the presence or absence of specific external features. Step 5: Determine if Munition was Deployed: If an ordnance item has been deployed and failed to function, it is classified as unexploded ordnance UXO. A munition that was deployed and failed to function is in the most dangerous condition. Step 6: Determine Safety Precautions that Apply: Every munition has a purpose; if that purpose can be ascertained, then most, or all of the associated hazards can also be identified.
There are 16 fundamental safety precautions associated with military ordnance and additional safety precautions related to specialized munitions not included in this text. These precautions are designed to clearly and concisely state what actions are to be taken, or explicitly avoided. Every precaution resulted from lessons learned after an accident, mishap, or catastrophe. When an unknown piece of ordnance is encountered, all 16 safety precautions are initially adhered to.
Throughout the inspection process, safety precautions associated with categories and groups that can be ruled out are dropped. The remaining safeties are adhered to until the incident is resolved. Consider rearranging them to make a word or phrase to assist in easy memorization. High Explosive HE : a. Hazard: Explosive blast and overpressure. Actions: i.
Do not expose to heat, shock, or friction. People within the exclusion area need adequate frontal protection. When the actual threat is realized, increase the exclusion area if necessary. Fragmentation Frag : a. Hazard: Primary and secondary fragmentation. People within the exclusion area need adequate frontal and overhead protection.
Electromagnetic Radiation EMR : a. Hazard: Unintentional initiation. EMR is electrical energy produced by radios, radars, cell-phones, and other electronic devices. EMR can initiate fuzing and other electronic components, especially if the munition is damaged. Actions: Do not use radio, cell-phone, or other electronic devices near an unknown ordnance item. Static: a.
Static can initiate fuzing and other electronic components, especially if the munition is damaged. Do not wear wool or nylon clothing when working with ordnance. Discharge static by placing the back of the hand on dirt or grasp a grounded item. Movement: a. Many fuzes, contain free-floating impact or inertia weights, cocked-strikers and other hazards that are extremely sensitive to movement.
Actions: Do not move. Positive identification and condition determination must be made prior to considering if a munition can be moved. Jet: a. Do not orientate a munition toward populated areas.
Ejection: a. Hazards: i. Components forcibly ejected during deployment, such as explosively ejected submunitions, pyrotechnic candles, fin assemblies, and fuzing probes.
For ordnance with motors, ejection applies to the areas in front of and behind the munition, as well as in front of venturis that may be on the base or side. Work outside areas where fins, probes, payloads, and other hazards would deploy. Do not move in front of or behind a munition containing a motor.
People in potential back-blast or flight path zones should move to a safe area. Chemical: a. Hazard: Contact contamination or inhalation of chemical weapons, riot control agents, smoke from burning pyrotechnics, heavy metals used in guidance systems, toxic propellants, some screening smoke mixtures, and explosive main charges, such as the chemicals used in fuel air explosive FAE munitions.
Wear appropriate personal protective equipment PPE. Fire: a. Hazard: Intense fire. Applies to munitions containing pyrophoric, pyrotechnic, and incendiary components or payloads.
Actions: If a munition is burning, i. Do not inhale the smoke and move away in an upwind direction. Never approach a burning or smoking munition.
Expect a higher-order detonation. Do not look directly at burning pyrotechnics. Do not attempt to extinguish burning explosives, pyrophoric materials, or pyrotechnic mixtures as this can cause an explosion. White Phosphorus WP : a. Hazard: Applies to munitions containing white phosphorus WP.
WP immediately ignites upon contact with the environment producing dense white smoke. The smoke produced by WP is extremely toxic. If starved of oxygen, a crust forms over the material. When this crust is broken, WP will immediately reignite.
If a WP munition is smoking or burning, expect a high-order detonation as WP burns at temperatures higher than the detonating temperature of bursting charge explosives. Actions: Do not disturb crusted over WP. If WP or RP is burning: i. Do not attempt to extinguish burning WP. During fuze arming and functioning, the positive block should have moved allowing the firing pin to function the fuze, but this process was somehow disrupted.
Actions: Do not move the munition. Hazard: Unexpected initiation. Applies to fuzes and components containing batteries, capacitors, pyrotechnic, or clockwork mechanisms that provide time delays ranging from milliseconds to years, before functioning. Proximity or Variable Time VT : a. Applies to fuzing incorporating VT, infra-red IR , old TV guidance systems, and other fuzes with similar sensing capabilities.
These fuzes usually sustain severe damage upon impact. But some missiles have VT fuzing elements on the side for highspeed aircraft. Piezoelectric PE : a.
PE fuzing uses quartz crystal to produce electric current when stressed that initiates an electric detonator in the fuze. PE crystals constitute a power source with an indefinite shelf life. Do not stress a PE element. Also adhere to EMR, static, and jet precautions. Actions: Assume all landmines are booby trapped and do not move a munition suspected of containing a booby-trap. Influence: Covers magnetic, acoustic, and seismic fuzing systems used with some landmines, bombs, and underwater ordnance.
Magnetic fuzing senses ferrous metal and functions when specific thresholds are met. Actions: Attempt to identify the munition at distance with binoculars. If magnetic fuzing is identified, do not approach the munition. Acoustic fuzing senses sounds and functions when specific thresholds are met. Actions: Attempt to identify the munition at a distance with binoculars.
If acoustic fuzing is identified, do not approach the munition. Seismic fuzing senses vibrations in the ground, air, or water and functions when specific thresholds are met. If seismic fuzing is identified, do not approach the munition. Step 7: Identify the Munition: Return to the safe area utilizing the same route taken upon approach. Using the information obtained during approach, inspection, and egress; consult military manuals, historical ordnance literature, and military EOD.
Validate findings and attempt to conclusively identify the munition. Given the number of variables associated with ordnance, it is impossible for any process to be infallible. Because of this, even the most experienced practitioner must be cautious when considering a conclusive identification. Other considerations that may affect a conclusive identification include: 1.
Damage from high-speed impact, fire, and other insult. Deterioration, exposure to the elements. Illegal modifications made after leaving military control. If present, color codes and painted markings are helpful. But repainting after leaving military control, as well as an international history of unpublished or constantly changing color schemes, may render this information useless. Cultural aspects of design are helpful and may include unique shapes, painted, or stamped symbols, or uncommon components.
Closing Ordnance is inherently dangerous, more so when it has been deployed, damaged, deteriorated, or modified in any way. Adhering to these safety precautions throughout the seven-step identification process, allows additional information to be obtained while working in the safest manner possible. Accurate identification of an unknown munition is the best way to avoid a disastrous outcome. Until proven otherwise, always consider a deployed, damaged, or modified munition to be armed, and in its most hazardous condition.
Fundamentals of Fuze Functioning 3 For years we have been treading so closely in the footsteps of precedent that the ordinary time-fuze of scarcely differs in principle of applying a composition to graduate and convey a flame to the charge of a shell from that in vogue at Dale in Until the mids, advancements in ordnance and fuzing system designs were minimal as the weapon systems and tactics they supported remained largely unchanged.
The only element missing was a large-scale opportunity to field-test these new ideas. Throughout the s and s, the Mexican—American War, Crimean War, and other conflicts around the world had little impact on ordnance designs since battlefields were far removed from the scientists, engineers, and manufacturers involved in developing the next innovative ordnance designs.
All of that changed with the onset of the American Civil War. Suddenly an opportunity arose to develop and immediately test new weapons and ordnance designs on a massive scale as the two largest armies in the world clashed on their own soil.
Many technological advancements from this period are still evident in munition designs today, most notably complex fuzing schemes that maximize functionality and reliability. What Is a Fuze? The fuze functions as the brain of a munition. When deployed, the fuze arms and determines when and how the munition will function. Prior to deployment, a fuze must be in a safe condition in order for personnel to handle, transport, and employ the munition without it prematurely functioning.
Functionality: The fuze must contain all the components to reliably initiate the munition. Precision: The fuze must function at precisely the right time to ensure maximum effectiveness. In this context, three or four milliseconds can be the difference between success or failure of the munition to perform with maximum efficiency. The fuzes used today are extremely well engineered and function with unprecedented precision, yet many still fail to function correctly.
Common causes of malfunctions include improper predeployment preparation, incorrect deployment, a disruption during deployment, deterioration of components, improper interaction or impact with the target, and material defects in fuzing components. Function as Designed To better understand fuzing systems, it is important to discuss the four distinct phases or conditions of a correctly deployed fuze. These are: 1.
Safe 2. Committed 3. Arm 4. Final action or function as designed Prior to functioning as designed, a fuze must move through the safe and committed phases to arm. To accomplish this, fuze designs apply the actions associated with deployment to the arming process. Arming a fuze involves a sequence of actions prior to, during, and sometimes after munition delivery, that coincides with the method of delivery, fuzing design, and the intended target. When ordnance does not function as designed, its condition must be determined.
To accomplish this, the phase the fuze was in when the process was interrupted must be ascertained. Conditions represent more specific breakdowns of the four-phases and include safe, partially armed, armed, or unknown.
Some fuzes are specifically designed to appear benign but are actually boobytraps. Positive identification is required to ensure fuzes with anti-disturbance, self-destruct, lengthy time delays, and other hazards are handled correctly. Merging Philosophies and Copy-Cats One fundamental problem with accurately identifying a fuze arises from merging philosophies, supported by varying manufacturing capabilities.
Resulting in fuzes made in different countries being identical on the exterior, but with substantial internal differences, as well as different operational functions. When attempting to identify ordnance, virtually everything is critically important. Some countries apply a commonsense approach to fuze manufacturing and concentrate on proven designs while others do not. Consider this quote from The aircraft gun fuzes appear to have been based on WWII German types of proven reliability.
In some instances, exact copies of internal elements have been noted. In other cases, German mechanical principles have been assimilated with Soviet munition philosophy design practices, resulting in a composite but highly effective design.
Fuzes in Vietnam, September 23, When researching ordnance, it is important to always keep copy-cat designs in mind. The focus of Practical Military Ordnance Identification, Second Edition is the application of a practical deductive process to identify unknown ordnance items that are commonly recovered outside military control. The author supplies a seven-step procedure to identify unknown munitions by their category, group, and type.
Detailed logic trees help users narrow down the possibilities in order to accurately identify ordnance. The book covers the safety precautions associated with each category and group of ordnance. It describes many ordnance construction characteristics and explains the fundamentals of military ordnance fuzing. Check your mailbox for the verification email from Amazon Kindle. Related Booklists. Post a Review To post a review, please sign in or sign up.
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